They were recruited for a study on memories and emotions. Several discrete emotions have broad theoretical and empirical importance, as shown by converging evidence from diverse areas of psychology, including facial displays, developmental behaviors, and neuroscience. The exploratory factor analyses also supported the existence of discrete emotions, even though they were unable to take into account the experimental manipulation of emotions. One key neural difference between fear and anxiety is that the peptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) has a special role in anxiety [49]. The only exception was the anxiety subscale, which was sensitive to both anxiety and fear scenarios. Many psychological scientists use poor measures of emotion to discount emotion prematurely. Brock Bastian, To this end, we asked participants to recall emotional events from their own lives, and to name the words that best described the emotions they experienced during these events. discrete emotions are largely lacking. You do not need permission to use measures that were published before 1924. In support of the idea that PA reflects approach rather than pure positivity, recent research has revealed that the PANAS is contaminated by a large first factor that could be referred to as evaluation or social desirability [13]. We performed a count of the words generated for each condition. Composite variables (subscales) were created by taking the mean of the four items with the highest loadings on each factor (shown in bold in Table 7). The emotions measured by the DEQ are listed below. The DEQ consists of the 4 items with the highest loadings on each of these factors (8 from the fear/anxiety factor) and small cross-loadings on the other factors. 1 = Strongly Disagree, 4 = Neutral, 7 = Strongly Agree. Emotion theory supporting the importance of distinguishing these specific emotions is reviewed. They created a measure, based on the PANAS, by adding words of opposite meaning but identical valence (for example, proud was matched with humble, and determined was matched with easy-going). Separate participants rated the items on how much they felt these words applied to themselves, in general. However, when Bonferroni corrections were applied to the ANOVAs (.05/7 = .0071), the p value needs to be less than .007 to be acceptable. We created seven sets of photographs, intended to evoke the seven emotions measured by the instrument. The full facial expression of anger involves the muscles of the brow moving inward and downward; the eyes fixed in a hard stare; and the nostrils and wings of the nose expanded [4, 5, 45]. To familiarize them with the task, participants then viewed the neutral set of rock pictures. The full facial expression of sadness involves the inner corners of the brows being drawn obliquely upward and together, with the eyes begin slightly narrowed; the corners of the mouth are pulled downward and the chin may be pushed up and quiver [4, 5]. ____ I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m in. Please view each picture for the entire time it is presented. 10 (6 Reappraisal items & 4 Suppression items) Sample Items. 4037. ____When I am feeling negative emotions, I make sure not to … For example, negative feedback on an essay might be intended to increase anger, and may in fact elevate anger in a majority of participants. To examine whether these subscales were sensitive to our emotional picture manipulation, one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were conducted with the picture sets as independent variables and the average ratings on each emotion subscale as the dependent measures (Table 9). You do not need permission to use U.S. federal government created measures. The emotional sets were anger (militants burning the American flag) [43, 66], disgust (dirty toilets and rotten food), fear (dangerous animals and weapons), anxiety (people taking tests or being questioned by police), sadness (people crying) [67], desire (delicious-looking desserts) [68], and relaxation (beaches). To assess reliability, a second judge coded a random sample of 15% of the stories. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. In all cases, the p values were acceptable. The only exception was the Fear and Anxiety subscales: these items loaded on a single fear/anxiety factor, however, participants endorsed them differently in response to emotional manipulations. If an organism is behaving, it can safely be assumed it is motivated and emoting. In addition, because unreliable measures contain more measurement error, the determination of effect size between the unreliable measure and other measures will be more difficult than if reliable measures were used. Emotions may be described either as discrete emotions or in dimensional terms. As the coding results from Study 1 showed, participants’ responses to the prompts were very rich: many of the stories that participants wrote included multiple emotion themes (Table 2). William Jamesbelieved in discrete emotion theory … Thus, we included the two subscales in the DEQ. > 6. Different grammatical forms of a word (e. g., anger, angry) were counted as a single word. Study 2 used autobiographical recall, whereas Study 3 used guided imagery. The DEQ is intended to measure state emotions, so in a non-emotional context, responses to the negative emotion subscales of the DEQ (anger, disgust, fear, anxiety, and sadness) should be near the floor for most individuals. The current manuscript presents four studies that validate a new instrument, the Discrete Emotions Questionnaire (DEQ), that is sensitive to eight distinct state emotions: anger, disgust, fear, anxiety, sadness, happiness, relaxation, and desire. In Study 4, we wanted to assess whether our emotion instrument was sensitive to a different manipulation of emotion. [39]. In this study, we investigate if and how empathy influences the perception of basic emotions. The Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist (MAACL) [18] and its revised version (MAACL-R) are comprised of subscales that are designed to assess self-reported Anxiety, Depression, Hostility, Positive Affect, and Sensation Seeking. We note that although we have validated a coherent measure comprising eight subscales that are sensitive to situational changes in emotional states, we have not exhausted full possibilities of the DEQ. For Studies 2, 3, and 4, all p values for the ANOVAs were less than .001. The results of four studies support the validity of the DEQ, a discrete emotions questionnaire (S1 Appendix). Means for the anger prompt did not differ from those for the anxiety prompt (p = .73). The second factor had an Eigenvalue of 8.65 and all of the fear and anxiety items loaded on this factor. Disgust is considered a basic emotion by Ekman and Izard but not by Panksepp, who views disgust as a sensory affect. orna o eavior Cite this article Edwards-Stewart A, Keller CJ, Ahmad ZS, June J, Hamann R, McBrearty M 21 Anger: ts mpact on Discrete Emotions and Posttraumatic Stress. In addition, because the positive items on the preliminary scale all loaded on the same factor, we added additional positive items in an attempt to identify items that would discriminate between discrete positive affects. The increase in the mean for the anger prompt compared to the fear prompt was not quite statistically significant (p = .06). The current manuscript presents four studies that validate a new instrument, the Discrete Emotions Questionnaire (DEQ), that is sensitive to eight distinct state emotions: anger, disgust, fear, anxiety, sadness, happiness, relaxation, and desire. When laypersons sort emotion words, the anxiety branch includes words like anxiety, nervous, and tense [39]. DEQ with instructions. Table 3 shows the most common words generated in response to each prompt. After viewing all the pictures of their assigned set, they rated how they felt during viewing on the DEQ (that is, an instrument made up of the best 4 items from each of the 8 factors). The word “love” and its synonyms had high loadings on the first factor (Happiness). You want to tell a close friend how you are feeling. Our chapter aims to build consensus in the literature by showing that discrete emotions provide a mechanism through which stressors exert their impact on well-being. Age ranged from 18 to 73 years (M = 34.28, SD = 12.78). In fact, we are scarcely immune from the allure of premature discounting, having done so in the not-so-distant past [9]. Emotion theory supporting the importance of distinguishing these specific emotions is reviewed. Joy is described as a basic emotion by Ekman and Izard, and joy words form a major cluster in the analysis by Shaver et al. The Emotions Regulatio Questionnaire (ERQ) items were rationally derived, and indicated clearly in each item is the emotion regulatory process intended for measurement, such as “I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m in” (reappraisal) and “I control my emotions by not expressing them” (suppression). Surprisingly, these empirical advances have not been met with advances in the measurement of discrete emotions via self-report questionnaires. To determine whether the emotion manipulation was successful, a judge who was blind to condition coded each story for whether it included each of the eight emotion themes (non-exclusive, S1 Data). When the first principal component was extracted from participants' self-endorsement of the items, it correlated r = .96 with the evaluation of the items, strongly suggesting that individuals endorsed the items based on valence, rather than semantic content. Reliability for all subscales was high (Cronbach’s αs > 0.80, Table 10). On the following screen, participants read, “In the space below, write ONE WORD that BEST names the emotion you experienced most strongly during this event.” After giving their open-ended response, participants proceeded to the next screen and read, “In the spaces below, write 4 more words that name the emotion you experienced most strongly during the event you wrote about. Try to imagine, as vividly as possible, how you would feel if this situation were happening to you.” Participants were then randomly assigned to read one of the scenarios from Table 6. Seventeen participants were excluded for failing the manipulation check question (they did not correctly identify the content of the two picture sets, baseline and emotional, they had viewed), leaving 491 individuals (290 women, 193 men, 3 other) for the analyses. Neurally, anger involves testosterone, substance P (a neuropeptide that acts as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator), the medial hypothalamus, amygdala, and the periaqueductal gray [6, 43, 44]. Often, research uses the PANAS to measure responses to situational manipulations of emotion, and often null effects are reported. Disgust is also regarded as a negative, high arousal emotion, but it is associated with withdrawal motivational tendencies. As you view the set of pictures, imagine yourself experiencing the events that the pictures show. The second factor had an Eigenvalue of 5.58, and all of the fear and anxiety words loaded positively on this factor (except “shock,” which had a loading of 0.44). 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